Machiavelli, Dante and the City States

Niccolo Machiavelli and Dante Alighieri are probably Italy's two best-known writers, and in turn their best-known works, "The Prince" and "The Divine Comedy", both concern the violent nature of Italian politics throughout the middle ages.

"The Prince" deals with how Machiavelli observed that a leader should behave. He said that "One must be a fox in order to recognise traps, and a lion to frighten off wolves. Those who simply act like lions are stupid. So it follows that a prudent ruler cannot, and must not, honour his word when it places him at a disadvantage". Not a lot has changed in politics down the ages.

You don't need to know anything about Machiavelli and Dante, about the City States, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the conflict between the Popes and the Holy Roman Empire, to enjoy Umbria and Tuscany. But these are the reasons why Siena exists in its time-warp, why St Francis had to buried in secret, and why we have these stunning hill-top towns and cities with their vast defenses and beautiful cathedrals.

City States like Florence, Pisa, Siena, Venice, Perugia, Assisi, et al were able to assert a measure of independence as a result of the uneasy relationship between the Popes and the Holy Roman Empire. Playing one against the other, successive rulers were able to resist the influence of either. Those who supported the Popes were known as Guelphs, those who supported the Empire as Ghibellines.

Being Italy, it wasn't completely straightforward. A town may declare for the Ghibellines just because it's neighbour was Guelph. The Guelphs themselves were divided into white and black factions, those who were moderately unhappy with the Empire, and those who were extreme supporters of the Popes. This split derived from the fatal repurcussions of a snowball fight! The White Guelphs (Dante's faction) eventually became anti-Pope and finally became Ghibelline, but not before they had all been exiled, Dante on pain of death by burning.

This factional fighting was at the root of the struggles between Florence and Siena, two of Medieval Europe's largest and most important cities. Predominantly Ghibelline Florence became ruled by the Guelph merchant-class. A heavy defeat to Siena was blamed on the Guelphs and Guelph houses were destroyed, with their leading families exiled.

The final instalment was the defeat of Siena by the Empire under Charles V, ending in a terrible siege with Siena's population falling to 8,000 from a high of 100,000. Charles' successor gave Siena to Cosimo I, the Medici ruler of Florence. Siena has never recovered. Unable even to operate banks, and under the control of Medici patronage, Siena became a backwater - which explains it's astonishing state of preservation today. Even now its population is little over half its peak in the 14th century.

These destructive relationships are repeated across Italy, between Assisi and Perugia, and to a lesser extent between all neighbouring towns and cities. Looking at the amazing medieval cities, with their wonderful festivals like the Palio and the Corsa dei Ceri in Gubbio, it is interesting to remember that we can only enjoy these amazing places because generations of Italians were completely mad.